innovation: 'increase' > 'grow in size'), (root #838 + * part. [103][53] In some branches, it can also derive abstract nouns and participles. ), (Sem., Eg. This name is possibly based upon the root "-b-r" ( . as EL). Kanuri Afroasiatic (Afro-Asiatic), also known as Afrasian or Hamito-Semitic, Semito-Hamitic, or Erythraean is a large language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa and parts of the Sahel. [31], A majority of specialists consider Omotic to constitute a sixth branch of Afroasiatic. >>14700322 >Proto-Semitic language contact with PIE implies the Semitic languages themselves come from J Caucasians. innovation: 'lift' > 'carry', (Eg., Sem., Cush, shared innovations: *su, *usu 'he'; *si, *isi 'she': see Chap. Omotic is the most controversial member of Afro-Asiatic. [29] Eight other Chadic languages have around 100,000 speakers; other Chadic languages often have few speakers and may be endangered of going extinct. [150] Christopher Ehret has argued that this prefix is a later development that was not present in Proto-Afro-Asiatic, but rather derived from a PAA indefinite pronoun *m-. innovation: 'knee'; Berber *afud < *puuz), to be finished, come to an end, be used up, (Sem., Cush. Therefore the root is considered ktb. When looking for roots it is important to remember that early Semitic only had consonants and vowels had to be inferred from the context (Atlas, p.78-79). Proto-Afro-Asiatic is proposed to have been spoken 18,000 years ago near the Horn of Africa (eastern Africa). reflex), (root #723 + *x extend. [174] The Semitic genitive case in -i is probably related to "nisba" adjective derivation. Proto-Afro-Asiatic is proposed to have been spoken 18,000 years ago near the Horn of Africa (eastern Africa). [20], There are between 40 and 80 languages in the Semitic family. ), (Eg., Sem. [173] While some scholars posit an AA origin for this form, it is possible that the Berber and Cushitic forms are independent developments,[130] as they show significant differences from the Egyptian and Semitic forms. The results, while confirming some previous views on proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian), revise or overturn many others, and add much that is new. Hadza, https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Appendix:Proto-Afroasiatic_reconstructions&oldid=68902118, attributive noun and attributive deverbative suffix, attributive and complement deverbative suffix, noun derivation from verb by stem-vowel lengthening, (Sem., Eg. [99] [176], Due to its presence in the oldest attested and best-known AA branches, nisba derivation is often thought of as a "quintessentially Afroasiatic feature". n. pref. Beboid Report Save. The only branch that's actually E is Berber. [92] Diakonoff argues that Proto-Afroasiatic syllables disallowed consonant clusters or vowels at the end of a syllable. Because i notice in some cases, they seem to have vowels shifting around quite a bit, akin to the trilateral root systems of the semitic languages. Pr. [76] It may have originally mostly biconsonantal, to which various affixes (verbal extensions) were then added and lexicalized. [149], A prefix in m- is the most widely attested affix in AA that is used to derive nouns. ; *m > /n/ ([])/_*x), (Sem., Eg. Proto-Afroasiatic is a language and NOT an ethnicity: Proto-Afroasiatic language - Wikipedia There is no proof where the Afroasiatic languages originated, but the oldest Afroasiatic language writing has been found in Egypt and dated 6000 years. ), (root #695 + *f iter.? This page was last edited on 28 August 2022, at 11:13. Central Sudanic (p-Central Sudanicp-Sara-Bongo-BagirmiSinyarBirrip-Mangbetu) [20] Omotic was formerly considered part of the Cushitic branch;[46] some scholars continue to consider it part of Cushitic. [183], Another factor making comparisons of AA numeral systems difficult is the possibility of borrowing. ; semantics: from closed- to open-ended action), to be wrong, bad, ill; do or function wrongly, (Eg., Ch. NE Sudanic [30] Most Chadic languages are located in the Chad basin, with the exception of Hausa. [131] This sex-based gender system is widely agreed to derive from Proto-Afroasiatic. [14], The term Semitic had already been coined in 1781 by August Ludwig von Schlzer, following an earlier suggestion by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1710. [144], A second category, which partially overlaps with case, is the AA linguistic category of "state." *w: deverbative complement and result suffix: 2. 1995. The Proto-Afrasian Phonological System Unlike the comparative-historical study of the Indo-European languagefamily, which has a long history, the comparative-historical study of the Afrasian language familyis still not far advanced, though enormous progress has been made in recent years. BLACK ATHENA: THE Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization (The Fabrication, - $16.27. [106] The most widespread constraint is against two different labial consonants (other than w) occurring together in a root, a constraint which can be found in all branches but Omotic. [90] Some Chadic languages allow a syllable to begin with a vowel. It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques. However, since the 1970s and '80s, comparisons of other Chadic subject pronouns with the Hausa ones have convinced most scholars that the similarity to the prefix conjugation is incidental. ; *u < *i /#-p_C-#? innovation: *-VC- v. stems > *-CV-), (Eg., Sem. [103] Igor M. Diakonoff proposed that Proto-AA had a three vowel system of long and short a, i, and u. [164] Christopher Ehret has proposed that Proto-Afroasiatic originally had as many as thirty-seven separate verbal extensions, many of which then became fossilized as third consonants. sing. [99] In Cushitic, the Ethiopian Semitic language Tigrinya, and some Chadic languages, there is no underlying phoneme [p] at all. Archaeologists and anthropologists have long viewed the Bible as mankind's best guide to prehistoric religion, however, archaeologist Klaus Schmidt had no reason to . [10][11], Friedrich Mller introduced the name "Hamito-Semitic" to describe the family in his Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, published in 1876. The Proto-Afroasiatic Vowel System. Omotic and Cushitic followed the example and split together, as did Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic in another group. [44], The c. 30 Omotic languages are still mostly undescribed by linguists. [77], Conjugation of verbs using prefixes that mark person, number, and gender can be found There is an obvious trend (probably driven by Semitic and Egyptian researchers) to place the Afroasiatic Homeland near one of the many proposed Semitic homelands, i.e. in *n, as also in #210) 324. p-Gbe (Fongbe) p-Manjaku [119] Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova instead proposed a six vowel system with a, e, o, i, ([y]), and u. [4] The most widely spoken modern Afroasiatic language or dialect continuum by far is Arabic, a de facto group of distinct language varieties within the Semitic branch. Kunama (Though I found no mention of the origin of Semito-, it is possible that this name comes from Shem, another son of Noah). The Berber and Semitic branches share certain grammatical features (e.g. [187] Modern Chadic numeral systems are sometimes decimal, having separate names for the numbers 1-10, and sometimes base-5, deriving the numbers 6-9 from the numbers 1-5 in some way. ), (root seen also in #984 + *n non-fin. Proto-Afroasiatic) was spoken, most agree that it was located within a region of Northeast Africa. El proto-afroasitico , a veces denominado proto-afrasiano , es el proto-lenguaje reconstruido del que descienden todas las lenguas afroasiticas modernas . *kop-sole (of foot . [15] Mller assumed that there existed a distinct "Hamitic" branch of the family that consisted of Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic. p-Jebel suff. There is no information on whether Egyptian had tones. Defaka [178], The forms of the pronouns are very stable throughout the Afroasiatic (excluding Omotic),[127] and they have been used as one of the chief tools for determining whether a language belongs to the family. : *itsim-), (2nd root shape: possible old tr. Proto-Afroasiatic, sometimes also referred to as Proto-Afrasian, is the reconstructed proto-language from which all modern Afroasiatic languages are descended. [153][168][h], Some AA branches have what is called a "suffix conjugation", formed by using pronominal suffixes to indicate person, gender, and number and a verbal adjective. Afro-Asiatic has been hypothesized to be related to many other language families. innovation: 'send' > 'direct,' hence 'command, rule'), (Agaw *a allows PAA vowel reconstructions *a, *aa, *o, or *e), (Sem., Eg. p-Mande (p-W. Mandep-Mandekanp-Niger-Voltap-S. Mande) Of all of the languages in the Afro-Asiatic line, Arabic is the most widely spoken language, stretching from Western Africa to the Middle East (ELL, p.51). Such evidence may reveal plants known to early Afroasiatic speakers; but it does not diagnose whether they were cultivated or wild. Abstract The paper is a new contribution to revealing the Afro-Asiatic heritage in the lexicon of the Angas-Sura group of Chadic languages by means of interbranch comparison using a.o. Theodor Benfy found that Egyptian and Semitic languages were similar in 1844, and he classified them under the Semito-Hamitic language family. [64] In the same year T.N. SOm stat. Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary. SLEC Som. [196][164] Such cognates tend to rely on relatively simple sound correspondences. Bendi Ayere-Ahan [85][86] Scholar Jared Diamond and archaeologist Peter Bellwood have taken up Militarev's arguments as part of their general argument that the spread of linguistic macrofamilies (such as Indo-European, Bantu, and Austro-Asiatic) can be associated with the development of agriculture; they argue that there is clear archaeological support for farming spreading from the Levant into Africa via the Nile valley. [66], Meinhof's version of the "Hamitic theory" remained prevalent until the 1940s, when it was definitively disproved by Joseph Greenberg. The results, while confirming some previous views on proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian), revise or overturn many others, and add much that is new. [40] Tom Gldemann, however, argues that less time may have been required than is commonly assumed, as it is possible for a language to rapidly restructure due to language contact, as happened in the Chadic branch and probably also in Omotic. [31] Hausa is the largest Chadic language by native speakers, and is spoken by a large number of people as a lingua franca in Northern Nigeria. In Afro-Asiatic, there are five main families. Bijogo [69] This theory connected the "Hamites", the originators of Hamitic languages, with (supposedly cultural superior) "Caucasians", who were assumed to have migrated into Africa and intermixed with indigenous "Negroid" Africans in ancient times. [128] In most branches, gender is an inherent property of nouns. ; Sem., Eg. [171][172] In Akkadian and Egyptian, the suffixes appear to be reduced forms of the independent pronouns (see Pronouns); the obvious correspondence between the endings in the two branches has been argued to show that Egyptian and Semitic are closely related. p-Koman Proto-Cushitic Roots (Additional to those presented in Ehret 1987) Appendix 3. Some languages have an additional feminine plural form in -t that is not listed here. ), (root *-sa-, seen also in #539 preceding, + *w inchoative), (2nd root shape *-caab- seen in PEC v. and Banna (SOm) 'white,' is not as yet satisfactorily accounted for), indefinite pronoun stem (one, someone, somebody), (stem + * iter. Proto-Afroasiatic is a reconstructed language. [124] Other scholars argue that Proto-AA had a pitch accent and some branches subsequently developed tone. stretching out of arms), (Sem, Eg., Ch., Cush, innovation: 'set on top of' > 'cover'), (Sem., Eg. The quality of the underlying vowels varies considerably by language; the most common vowel throughout AA is schwa. Pre-Proto-Semitic Roots (Additional to those presented in Ehret 1989) Appendix 2. Sandawe . [101] The Omotic forms of the personal pronouns differ from the others, with only the plural forms in North Omotic appearing potentially to be cognate. [127] These pronouns tend to show a masculine "u" and a feminine "i". innovation: derivation of v. 'to sleep' by addition of *n non-fin. ; possible n. derivation < v. in #1004). p-Surmic p-Cushitic Upload your video About the author [118], Attempts to reconstruct the vocalic system of Proto-Afroasiatic vary considerably. Proto-Chadic reconstruction is in its infancy, Proto-Cushitic is even less developed, and according to Glottolog it's not demonstrable that Omotic languages are even related to each other, let alone as part of Afro-Asiatic. Due to isolation, Icelandic has changed the least and is most similar to Old Norse, and therefore probably also to Proto-Germanic. as denom. innovation: to spoil > to sour), (Sem., Eg. Proto-Afroasiatic English gloss Notes 1. p-Edoid > *itsan-; Omotic innovation: stem + *m n. and touches on external evidence from Afroasiatic cognate languages. derivation by addition of *-u- tr. These records make it possible to classify and reconstruct many languages. . Aunque las estimaciones varan ampliamente, los eruditos creen que se hablaba como un solo idioma hace entre 12.000 y 18.000 aos (12 a 18 kya ), es decir, entre 16.000 y 10.000 a . innovation: added sense, 'to listen to'), (Ch., Sem., Berber innovation: specialized meaning 'tooth'; but note presence of that meaning isolated in single Omotic language), (innovation: Sem., Ch. Benfys title was later inverted to make Hamito-Semitic but over time racial connotations were applied to this name (Voegelin, p.13). In the above model, Taforalt draws about half of their ancestry (you can call this ANA) from a population that also (likely through a sister population) contributes the . (root #311+old Afroasiatic pl. Mimi-D [34] The Cushitic family is traditionally spit into four branches: the single language of Beja (c. 3 million speakers), the Agaw languages, Eastern Cushitic, and Southern Cushitic. [82] Likewise, all Semitic languages are fairly similar to each other, whereas the African branches of Afroasiatic are very diverse; this suggests the rapid spread of Semitic out of Africa. ), #209 + Afroasiatic pl. Berta [184] Only some Berber languages maintain the native Berber numeral system, with many using Arabic loans for higher numbers and some from any numeral beyond two. [40] Scholars have proposed locations both in the Middle East and in Africa. [54] The "Hamitic theory" would serve as the basis for Carl Meinhof's highly influential classification of African languages in his book Die Sprache der Hamiten (1912). [23] In the past, Berber languages were spoken throughout North Africa except in Egypt;[24] since the 7th century CE, however, they have been heavily affected by Arabic and have been replaced by it in many places. The other three are very closely related and it is not hard for, say, a Dane to learn to understand a Swede. [75] Proponents of an African origin of Afroasiatic assume the proto-language to have been spoken by pre-Neolithic African hunter-gatherers,[76] arguing that there is no evidence of words in Proto-Afroasiatic related to agriculture or animal husbandry. p-Ogoni Other Language Families and Fields of Study. [68] On the other hand, the classification relied on anthropological and racial features, such as skin color, hair type, and lifestyle. Olukumi [65] In 1844, Theodor Benfey first described the relationship between Semitic and the Egyptian language and connected both to the Berber and the Cushitic languages (which he called "Ethiopic"). For example, the Hamitic component inaccurately suggests the existence of a monophyletic "Hamitic" branch alongside Semitic. . Like in the English example, feet foot, vowels make the difference between separate words. p-Nilotic (p-E. Niloticp-S. Nilotic) Bomhard postulates that from Proto-Afroasiatic (henceforth PAA), Chadic was the first to break off. [54] However, Christopher Ehret (1979), Harold Fleming (1981), and Joseph Greenberg (1981) all agree that the Omotic branch split from the rest first. xvii + 557. [54] These five or six branches remain the academic consensus on the family. [156] It is unclear whether this system is a common AA trait;[157] the Chadic examples, for instance, show signs of originally deriving from affixes, which could explain the origins of the alterations in other languages as well. Proto-Afro-Asiatic: *abaw/y- Meaning: a k. of plant Semitic: *abVw- 'reed, papyrus' Egyptian: wb 'root', cf. This great divide has made travel difficult so linguistic boundaries tend to be based on either side. Answer: Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family, which includes over 400 languages spoken across much of Africa and the Middle East. in *n, as also in #210), (Sem., Eg. [186] Within the Semitic language family, Lipiski counts four different roots meaning "one". [142][143] Zygmont Frajzyngier states that a general characteristic of case marking in AA languages is that it tends to mark roles such as genitive, dative, locative, etc. suff. [91] Typically, syllables only begin with a single consonant. [138][177] Christopher Ehret argues for its presence in Proto-Afroasiatic and for its attestation in some form in all branches, with a shape -*ay in addition to -*iy in some cases. North Germanic includes Icelandic, Swedish, Danish and Norwegian. [152], A widely attested feature in AA languages is a consonantal structure into which various vocalic "templates" are placed. . Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and the Hausa language, an idea that was taken up by early scholars of Afroasiatic. [175] In Egyptian, it takes the forms -j, whereas in Semitic it takes the form -i(y);[138] it thus has the same form in both language families. London: Routledge, 1990. Meredith Holt [38] The oldest text in a Cushitic language probably dates from around 1770. [87], Afroasiatic languages share a number of phonetic and phonological features. [155], The degree to which the AA verbal root was triliteral (having three consonants) is debated. Its words and roots are not directly attested in any written works, but have been reconstructed through the comparative method, which finds regular similarities between languages that cannot be explained by coincidence or word-borrowing, and extrapolates ancient forms from these similarities. Momo p-Jen [3] The phylum has six branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, Semitic, and Omotic. [100], All or most branches of AA have a contrast between voiceless, voiced, and "emphatic" consonants. [116], There is a large variety of vocalic systems in AA. [89] In Cushitic and Chadic languages, a glottal stop or glottal or fricative may be inserted to prevent a word from beginning with a vowel. [108] Such rules do not always apply for nouns, numerals, or denominal verbs, and do not affect prefixes or suffixes added to the root. Afroasiatic. Proto-Afro-Asiatic is of great antiquity; experts tend to place it in the Mesolithic Period at about 15,000-10,000 bce. Bariba suff. The HmongMien languages also known as MiaoYao and rarely as Yangtzean1 are a highly tonal language family of southern China and northern Southeast [182], Unlike in the Indo-European or Austronesian language families, numerals in AA languages cannot be traced to a proto-system. FOR SALE! [97] All Afroasiatic languages contain stops and fricatives; some branches have additional types of consonants such as affricates and lateral consonants. p-Lower Cross River It's impossible to tell exactly how old Proto-Afroasiatic is, or where it was spoken, but there are a few ideas. At the same time, linguistic similarities such as vowel changes help show relationships among languages. p-Katloid New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1996. shared innovation: *als-/*ils- 'tongue': *a-/*i-attrib. There is also some evidence from. Temein The root form of the verb has only three consonants in common.
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